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http://www.archive.org/details/oswegonormalmethOOfarn 




THE 



OSWEGO NORMAL METHOD 



-OF- 



TEiCHIiG GEOGRIPH! 



PREPARED FOR THE PRACTICE DEPARTMENT OF THE 

OSWEGO STATE N'ORMAL AND TRAINING 

SCHOOL OF OSWEGO, N. Y. 



AMOS W. FARNHAM 



TEACHER OF GEOGRAPHY METHODS, AND PRINICTPAL OF PRACTICE SCHOOL. 




SYRACUSE, N. Y. ^NVx2i^4$'*\ 

0. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 

1896 



Copyright, 1896, by C. W. Bardeen 



G13 



C. W. BARBEEN, SYRACUSE, 



TO THE PRACTICE TEACHER, 

the present dependence of the practice school, and the 
future reputation of the Normal school, these helps 
on geography teaching are regardfully inscribed by the 

Author. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 



The author desires to express his gratitude to Miss 
Margaret K. Smith of the Oswego Normal School, for 
valuable suggestions in connection with this work. 

Mr. Charles B. Scott of the Oswego Normal School, 
and Mr. G-eorge E. Bullis, Superintendent of Schools, 
Oswego, have given helpful criticisms on the material 
and its arrangement. A. W. F. 

Oswego, May 21, 1896. 



PREFACE 



Geography, at best, is a very complex subject. It 
includes the earth and all that pertains to it, as well as 
something of its relations to other planets. The sub- 
ject is practically inexhaustible. It is the study of a 
lifetime. It begins with the child when he first enters 
the world, and only ends with him when he takes his 
exit from it. The question with the teacher is, how 
much of this study belongs to the life in the school. 
To what extent is he responsible for giving direction to 
this study. 

It would seem sufficient to demand that he lay good 
foundations, and get the pupil started in the right 
direction. If this is a correct premise, then the first 
duty by the way of laying the foundation is to lead the 
child to properly observe everything in nature about 
him, — the air, the water, the sky, the clouds, the temper- 
ature, the animals, the plants, the rocks, the soil, the- 
hills, the valleys, the streams, the habitations, the occu- 
pations, — in short all that pertains to that part of the- 
earth which he knows, and its environments. He 
must also become master of the necessary terms with 
which to express the ideas gained by his observations.. 

If the teacher leads the child to do this preparatory 
(3) 



4 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 

work well, he has discharged an important part of his 
work in teaching geography. The child now knows 
all of geography that his senses can reveal to him. He 
has gained the power of accurate observation, infer- 
ence, and expression. He can readily express his ideas 
in words, by drawing and painting, by modeling and 
constructing. 

This prepares him for the next step in his progress, 
and he now steps out from the known to the great 
unknown. The foundation is laid upon which he is to 
build. He now goes from the real, the actual, to the 
imaginative, the ideal. He is no longer confined to 
that small portion of the earth that lies within the ken 
of his vision, but he takes in th^ whole, of which this 
is but a small part. His knowledge of the depressions 
and elevations, the smaller water-sheds and water 
basins, the streams, his village, city or town, and the 
occupations of the people about him, prepares him to 
form some conception, vague and inaccurate though 
it may be, of the great continents, with their vast 
mountain masses, plateaus, continental water-sheds, 
basins, and river systems, and their relation to the pro- 
ductions, occupations, and homes of the people. 

Thus far the teacher may go with his pupils, and if 
this is wisely done he has discharged his duty. He has 
prepared the way for future study, — for the better 
understanding of all that will need interpretation as 



PEEFACE ^ 5 

the life study goes on, and for the intelligent filling in 
of details. 

All this evidently was in the thought of the author 
of this little book, and it seems to me to be admirably 
presented. It is not designed for memory work. It is 
full of good suggestions for the teacher ; not a guide 
for him to follow blindly and implicitly, but rather to 
point out directions in which he may lead his pupils, — 
outlines of work to be executed in accordance with the 
conditions and circumstances, the environments and 
thought or ingenuity of the teacher. . 

While the author has in mind his pupils in training, 
at the same time the book is equally suggestive to all 
teachers of geography, and I predict for it a useful 
career. The plan, the order of arrangement, the ex- 
clusion of unnecessary details, all seem to me very 
commendable. And I take pleasure in endorsing it as 
an embodiment of my own idea as to the method of 
teaching geography. I am proud to recognize among 
our corps of teachers one who is capable of doing such 
excellent work in this most difficult subject to teach. 
His modesty led him to shrink from giving to the pub- 
lic this valuable little treatise designed for a much 
more restricted use, and the only part I claim in its 
production and publication is the suggestion and en- 
couragement given to do what he has so skilfully 
executed. E, A. SHELDOisT. 

Oswego, May 6, 1896.- 



CONTENTS 



Page 
KEASONS FOR TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 11 

BOOKS OF REFERENCE 13 

C JUNIOR— FOURTH GRADE 17 

I. Position words 19 

II. Right, left, front, back . . 31 

III. The school -room. 31 

IV. Horizon 31 

y. Cardinal points 33 

yi. Plan of school-ro.om 33 

yil. Plan of school block 35 

yill. Streets of the city •. 35 

IX. Description of the city 37 

X. Inhabitants of the city 33. 

XL Government of the city 36 

XII. Surroundings of the city 36 

B JUNIOR— FIFTH GRADE 45 

XIII. The seasons 47 

Xiy. Atmospheric phenomena 49 

Xy. Brook basin — field lesson. 51 

Xyi. Pond 58 

Xyil. The county 59 

A JUNIOR— SIXTH GRADE 61 

Xyill. The earth as a planet 63 

XIX. The sun .' 77 



8 .METHOD OF TP]ACHI^'G GEOGRAPHY 

Page 
XX. The moon 77 

XXI. Eclipses 81 

XXII. The planets 82 

XXIII. Thestars 83 

XXIV. Comets 85 

C SENIOK— SEVENTH GRADE 87 

XXV. The earth as the home of man 89 

B SEXIOE— EIGHTH GRADE 97 

XXVI. The continent as a whole 99 

A SENIOR— NINTH GRADE 103 

XXVII. A country 105 

LESSON PLANS AND CRITICISMS .109 

CRITICISM ON GEOGRAPHY LESSON 115 

I. Report of lesson 117 

II. Method .118 

III. Subjective technique 118 

IV. Objective technique 119 

V. Statistics 120 

VI. Results 120 

VII. Judgment 121 



GEO&EAPHY METHODS 



KEASONS FOR TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 



1. To explain the development of man by imparting 
knowledge of continental structure and climate^ and of 
their influence upon man, mediate and immediate. 

2. To cultivate the imaginative and sesthetic nature. 
The study of geography cultivates systematically the 

imagination, whose products develop emotions of beauty, 
which-, in turn, develop the emotion of grandeur. 

The mental picture of the hill or lake which gives 
beauty to the surrounding landscape, may in time, 
become the image of the lofty mountain or the expanse 
of ocean. 

3. To explain and illumine history. 

History is a record of the deeds of the human race. 
The civilization and progress of a joeople depend very 
largely upon the structure and climate of their country. 

4. To develop a broad philanthropy. '^ To know the 
world is to love the world. ■'^ 

5. To develop a spirit of investigation. Thus : 

a. What has caused Chicago to grow so rapidly ? 
5. Why is more attention paid to the dairy in 
Oswego County at present than formerly ? 
(11) 



12 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY 

c. Why have the elevators on our river never beeii 
rebuilt ? Etc. 

6. To temper man's judgments with regard to human 
weaknesses caused by natural environment, e. g. 

How should we regard the social conditions of the 
Eskimos, the Hottentots, and the Fiji Islanders ? Etc. 

7. To develop man's reverence for human progress. 
Study the geography of Holland and the development 

of agriculture and commerce. 

8. To furnish the basis of other sciences : such as 
ethnology, history, etc. 

9. To influence character. 



BOOKS OF REFERENCE 



Local Geography 

Bardeen^s Geography of tlie Empire State, G. W. 
Bardeen. 

Physical (jeography 

Gruyot's Physical G-eography, American Booh Co. 

Geikie^s Primer of Physical Geography, American 
Booh Co. 

, Tarr^s Elementary Physical Geography, Macmillan 
<& Co. 

National Geographic Monographs, American Booh 
Co. 

Huxley^s Physiography, Macmillan S Co. 

Gee's Short Studies in Nature Knowledge, Macmil- 
lan & Co. 

Astronomical Grcograpliy 

Jackson^s Astronomical Geography, B. C. Heath 
S Co. 

The Planet Earth, B. C. Heath & Co. 

Bowen^s Astronomy by Observation, American 
Booh Co. 

Meteorology 

Loomis's Treatise on Meteorology, Harper & Brothers. 
(13) 



14 METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGEAPHY 

Davis's Elemeatary Meteorology, Ginn t§ Co. 

G-reeley's American Weather, Dodd, Mead & Co. 

Easser's Law of Storms, Norie <& Wilson, London. 

Abercrombie's Principles of Forecasting by Means of 

Weather Charts, Edioin Stanford, Charing Cross^ 

London. 

Commercial Greography 

Chisholm's Handbook of Commercial G-eography^ 
Longr}ians, Green & Co. 

Keltic's Applied G-eography, Geo. Pliiliid & SonSy 
London. 

Tilden's Commercial G-eography. 

Geography Taught by the Traveler 

The Boy Traveler Series, Harper & Brothers. 

The Zigzag Journeys Series, Estes & Lauriat. 

The Family Flight Series, D. Lotlirop & Co. 

Footprints of Travel, Ginn S Co. 

Children of the Cold, Cassell & Co. 

Old Ocean, Interstate PublisMng Go. 

Johonnot's Geographical Reader, American Booh Co. 

Rand-McNally Grammar School Geography. 

Frye's Complete Geography, Ginii S Co. 
General Geography 

The World and its People, Silver, Burdett <& Co. 

Picturesque Geographical Readers, Lee & Shepard. 

Our World Reader, Ginn S Co. 

Geographical Statistics 

Spafford's American Almanac, American Neius Go. 



BOOKS OF BEFERENCE 15 

Science of Greography 

Gruyot's Earth and Man, Charles Scrihier's 8o7is. 

Ritter's Comparative Geograpliy, Americayi Book Co. 

Eitter^s G-eographical Studies, American Booh Co. 

Fryers Child and Nature, Hyde Parh PuUisliing Co. 
Metliods of TeacMug Geography 

Red way ^s Manual of Geography, D. C. Heath & Co. 

McMu'i-ry^'s Special Method in Geography, Public 
School PuhUshing Co. 

Parkers How to Study Geography, American Booh Co. 

Fryers Geography and Sand Modeling, Ginn <& Co. 

King^s Methods and Aids in Geography, Lee & 
Shejmrd. 

Geikie^s The Teaching of Geography, Macmillan <& Co. 

BrownelFs How to Use Globes, Andreius S Co. 

Whitens Elements of Pedagogy, American Booh Co. 
Wall Maps of Physical Geography 

Guyot^s, Kiepert^s, Rand-Mc^NTally. 



C JUNIOR— rOURTH GRADE 



GEOGRAPHY— PREPARATORY WORK 



I. Position Words 

ahout = on every side of. 

above = higher in place. 

across = from side to side. 

after = behind in place ; later in time. 

against — in opposition to ; facing. 

among = mingled with. [Used with regard to 
more than two parties.] 

along = by the length of. 

around = on all sides of ; from one part to an- 
other of. 

at = nearer in place. 

lefore = in front of. 

behind = on the other side of. 

below = not so high. 

beneath = in a lower place. 

between = in the intermediate space of. [Used 
with regard to two parties.] 

beyond — on the farther side of. 

by = not far from. 

doiun = in a descending direction. 
(19) 



20 rOUETH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

in = within limits. 

into = from the exterior to the interior. 

near = not far from. 

off = distant from ; not on. 

on = touching the upper surface of a thing 

and supported by it. 
over = from side to side ; above in position and 

covering. 
through = from one surface or limit to the opposite. 
to = motion made in the direction of a place, 

and arrival. 
toward = in the direction of. 
under = in a lower position and covered. 
up = from a lower to a higher plane. 

upon = on. 

within = in the interior part of. 
without = on the outside of. 

Note. — The use of the above words should be illus- 
trated with objects in view. 

The ideas of relation of position should be clearly 
developed, and expressed in full statements. 

Children should be led to state what they mean by 
the use of about , above, across, etc. A sufficient amount 
of application should follow the development of each 
idea represented by a position word. 

Be thorough. Bear in mind that this is preparatory 
work for geography. 



RIGHT, LEFT, FRONT, BACK 21 

n. Right, left, front, back 

Illustrative questions 

1. Which hand am I holding up ? [Right hand.] 

2. Show your right hand. 

3. What things do you do with your right hand ? 

4. Point to your right. 

5. Name a pupil at your right, etc., etc., etc. 

Similar for left. 

1. Where am I standing in regard to you ? [Front.] 

2. Where is the table in regard to you ? 

3. Trace front edge of table. 

4. Place these cubes near the front edge of table, 

etc., etc., etc. 

Note. — Lead children to combine terms; e. g., The 
book is on the right front corner of the table. Similar 
for left front J right lack, left tack, 

N. B. — See note below Position Words. 

m. The school-room, with terms right, left, front, 
back, applied. 
Ask children to point to right wall, left wall, etc., 
etc. ; to name things in or on each wall ; to state which 
walls meet, and which do not meet, etc., etc. 

IT. Horizon 

1. The sky is above us. 

2. The earth is below us, — beneath our feet. 

3. The sky seems to rest upon the earth. 



22 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

4. At the place where the sky seems to touch the 

earth, a circle seems to be formed. 

5. We seem to stand in the center of this circle. 

6. We cannot see beyond this circle. We can see 

only the objects within this circle. 

7. We say that this circle bounds our view. 

8. We call this circle the horizon. 

9. If we change our position the horizon changes. 

10. The higher we stand the larger the horizon is. 
The lower we stand the smaller the horizon is. 

11. Above the horizon we can see the sun, moon, 

and stars. They are called heavenly bodies. 

12. For us the sun is the most important of the 

heavenly bodies. 

13. The apparent circle which bounds our view 

where the sky and earth seem to meet, is 

called the horizo?i. 
]S[0TE. — Ideas underlying statements of matter on 
horizon should be gained from actual observation. 
The horizon should be seen from the highest point 
accessible to the class. The childi-en of the practice 
school should observe from the cupola of the Normal 
building or from Asylum Hill. Children should make 
drawings of the horizon and of their position with 
regard to it. 

y. Cardinal points 

1. Review terms, right, left, front, bach. 



CAEDINAL POINTS ; PLAN OF SCHOOL-ROOM 23 

2. Have children change their positions, and state 

that objects once at their right, are now at 
their left, or behind them, etc., etc. 

3. Develop ideas of necessity for absolute direc- 

tions, and teach North, South, East, West. 

4. The North Star and afterward the mariner's 

compass should be used to illustrate North, 

5. Teach children how to find the North Star by 

the aid of the Big Dipper. 

6. Correct notions of the points east and west can- 

not be gained from the rising and setting of 
the sun. Why not ? 
Semi-cardinal points. 

7. Each child should make a drawing of the dial of 

the mariner's compass representing only car- 
dinal and semi-cardinal points. 

yi. Plan of school-room with cardinal and semi- 
cardinal points applied. 

1. Appa7'atus. 

a. Molding board with plane surface of sand. 

[The molding board should be in a horizontal 
position with its ends pointing towards the 
ends of the room.] 

b. Tape-line and yard-stick. 

2. Measurements. 

a. Children measure ; class observe ; teacher con- 
firm. 



24 FOURTH GJRADE GEOGRAPHY 

l. Measurements reduced to a scale. 
c. Teacher question, and draw in sand ; class 
observe. 

3. Objects represented. 
a. Doors. 

h. Windows. 

c. Teacher's table. 

4. Reproduction. 

Drawing reproduced on paper by each child, 
each step being directed by the teacher. 
Note. — It should be made possible for each child to 
face North when he draws his first plan (of school- 
room). While drawings are in position (i. e., with 
their represented directions coinciding with the real 
directions) children should letter them in the cor- 
responding margins, N., E., S., W. 

5. Edges of paper 

Children should be led to state that the top edge of 
the paper is the north edge ; the right edge is the east 
edge ; etc., etc. 

6. Changes of position. 

Children change position of drawings and state that 
the drawings still show correct positions and directions 
of objects in the room, and also of the walls of the 
room. 

7. Drawings on the wall. 

Children place drawings on the north wall and state 



PLAIS" OF SCHOOL BLOCK 25 

that the upper edge is now the north edge ; that the 
right edge is still the east edge ; etc., etc. 
8. B valuing defined. 
Because this is a representation of the floor, doors, 
windows of the school-room, it is called a plan of the 
school-room. 

YH, Plan of school Mock with cardinal and semi- 
cardinal points applied. 

1. See (I) below VI. 

2. See (2) below VI. 

3. Ohjects represented. 

a. Frontage of school grounds and of all other 

grounds in block. 
h. Sidewalk, 
c. 8hade trees. 

4. See (4) below VI. 

5. See (5) '' VI. 

6. See (6) " VI. 

7. See (7) '' VI. 

8. Plan of school Mock defined. 

Because this is a representation of a portion of 
the surface of the earth, it is called a map 
(of the school block). 

Till. Streets of the city in their relation to the 
school block. 

1. Cardinal points considered. 

2. Location, direction, distance. 



26 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

The term location as it is used in these outlines, 
implies direction and distmice. Children should make 
thorough and frequent application of the ideas of car- 
dinal and semi-cardinal directions during their study 
of the city and its surroundings. They should also 
make actual measurements of distance until they can 
estimate short distances either in feet, yards or rods 
with considerable accuracy. Children will be inter- 
ested to know how many minutes it takes them to 
walk a mile, a half mile, a quarter of a mile. Estima- 
ting distance by means of time, either absolute or com- 
parative time, is of greater practical value than by 
means of standard linear units. '^^How long will it 
take V is the correlative of ^' How far is it V Child- 
ren should learn first-hand the length and width of the 
city blocks, and then they should use these dimensions 
in calculating city distances. 
3. Home geography. 

'' The very first step in a knowledge of geography, is 
to know thoroughly the district where we live.^^ — 
Ritter. 

^^ Wherever our home is, there lie all the materials 
which we need for the study of the entire globe. ^^ — 
Ritter. 

•^^ The study of our own district is the true key to 
the understanding of the forms and the phenomena of 
foreign lands." — Ritter. 



DESCRIPTION" OF THE CITY 27 

^^ Every little nook and shaded corner is but a 
reflection of the whole of nature." — Humboldt . 

IX. Description of the city 

1. Streets. 
a. Names. 

l. Directions in which they extend. 

c. Location. 

d. Direction and distance of streets from lake, 

river, and streets that are above, across, 
below, between, beyond, near, off from, etc., 
other streets. Children learn distances 
from actual measurements. 

2. Bridges. 

a. Names. 

b. Location. 

c. Length. 

Note. — Show pictures of Brooklyn bridge, Niagara 
Suspension bridge, and others. Children note differ- 
ences in their construction, etc. Show pictures of 
street scenes in other cities. 

3. Wards, 

a. Number. 

b. Names. 

c. Location with regard to, — 

(1) lake, 

(2) river, 

(3) adjoining wards. 



28 FOUETH GEADE GEOGEAPHY 

d. Boundaries — natural and artificial. 

4. Street railways, 
a. Name. 

h. Location. 

c. Termini. 

d. Length — in blocks ; in miles. 

e. Officers. 

5. Paries, 

a. Names. 
h. Location. 

c. Extent — length, width, area — equal to two 

blocks. 

d. Uses. 

(1) Resorts, 
pleasure, 

_ health. 

(2) Mass-meetings. 

Note. — Show pictures of Central Park and others. 

6. PuUic huildings, 
a. Names. 

h. Location. 

c. Direction and distance from school-house. 

d. Uses. 

e. Occupants. 

7. Educational institutions. 
a. Names. 

h. Location — direction and distance. 
c. Uses. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE CITY 29 

d. Occupants. 

e. Officers. 

Note. — Show pictures of similar institutions in other 
cities. 

8. CliaritaUe institutions. 
a. Names. 

h. Location. 

c. Uses. 

d. Officers. 

Note. — Present pictures of similar institutions. 

9. Banhs. 

a. Names. 
h. Location. 

c. Uses. 

d. kinds. 

e. Officers. 

Note. — Present pictures of other banks. 

10. Churches. 
a. Names. 
]). Location. 
c. Pastors. 

Note. — Present pictures of noted churches. 

11. Manufactories. 
a. Names. 

h. Location. — Emphasize reasons for location. 

c. Uses. 

d. Officers. 



30 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

Note. — Present manufactured articles, when prac- 
ticable. 

12. Railway stationfi. 

a. Names. 

b. Location. 

c. Uses. 

Note. — Present pictures of imposing railway stations. 

13. Railroads. 

a. Names. 

b. Direction. 

c. Termini. 

d. Uses. 

e. Officers. 

Note. — Show views of landscapes seen along the 
lines of our railroads, as well as of others. 

14. Canals. — Same as railroads. 

N. B. — Teach about hydraulic canals and locks. 

15. The lake. 

a. Name. 

b. Location — with regard to the city. 

c. Use. (Commercial use.) 

16. The river. 
a. Name. 

h. Location — with regard to the city. 
c. Use. (Commercial use.) 

17. Shipping, 
a. Kinds. 



DESCEIPTION" OF THE CITY 31 

b. Causes. 

c. Results. 

Note. — This work underlies commercial geography. 

18. The fort, 
a. Name. 

h. Location. [Reason for.] 

c. Uses. [Reasons for peculiar form.] 

d. Officers. 

e. History. 

Note. — Present pictures of our former forts, and 
also of other forts. 

This work underlies military geography. 

19. The weather station, 
a. Name. 

h. Location. [Reasons for.] 

c. Use. 

d. Officers. 

(1) appointed by whom ? 

(2) paid by whom ? 

(3) duties of ? 

e. Storm signals. [Name and describe.] 
/. Excursion to. [Apparatus explained.] 
g. Weather maps, charts, reports. 

Note. — Geography pupils should make and record 
daily observations of the weather, noting, — 

(1) frost or dew, 

(2) direction and force of wind. 



32 EOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

(3) extent and kind of clouds, 

(4) precipitation [snow, rain, hail, etc.], or fog, 

(5) temperature, 

(6) barometric pressure, 

(7) sun-rise, 

(8) sun-set, 

(9) moon^s phases, 

(10) moon-rise or moon-set, 

(11) morning star, 

(12) evening star. 

ISToTE. — Children early learn to make '^graphic ^' 
charts of the different aspects of the weather. The 
daily weather bulletin should occupy a conspicuous 
place on the black-board. 

20. The life-saving station, 
a. Name. 
h. Location. [Reasons for.] 

c. Use. 

d. Officers, — 

(1) appointed by whom ? 

(2) paid by whom ? 

(3) duties of ? 

e. Excursion to. 

(1) Exhibition of service witnessed. 

(2) Apparatus explained. 

Note. — Children should be required to make these 
observations the subject of written compositions. 



rNHABITAiq"TS OF THE CITY 33 

21. City map presented. 

a. Teacher question, children name and locate 
all places studied ; hence the name of the 
map. 

h. Teacher lead children to see that people 
must be acquainted with the city in order 
to make the map ; and that strangers may 
learn from the map the location of the 
streets, public buildings, etc., of the city, 
— hence the use of the map. 

X. ^Inhabitants of the city 

1. Nationality, 

a. Who of you were not born in America ? 
5. Where were you born ? 

c. Whose parents were not born in America ? 

d. Whei-e were they born ? 

e. Point toward the land of their birth. 
/. In what direction are you pointing ? 

g. Then the land of their birth is in what 

direction from us ? 
A. How did they reach America ? 
i. How long were they coming ? 
j. Where did they land ? 
Ic. Point toward the place. 
I, Who were born in America ? 
m. Whose parents were born here ? 



34 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

2. History. — Told in stories and pictures of life in 
Germany, France, Ireland, etc , as the case 
may be, — especially stories and pictures of 
child-life. 

a. Sports. 

h. Occupations. 

c. Clothing — Styles of dress 

d. Food. 

e. Observance of Christmas and national holi- 



Patriotism. — Material for lessons on home and 

native land. 
a. Object. — To develop power of reflection. 
h. Point. — To develop ideas of and give terms, — 

(1) House of my birth. 

(2) Dwelling-house. 

(3) Birth-place or native place. 

(4) Dwelling-place. 

(5) Home or country or native land. Also 

develop some sense of the significance 
of home and country. 

c. Matter. 

(1) The house in which I was born is the 

house of my birth. 

(2) The place to which the house of my birth 

belongs is called my birth-place or my 
native place or my native city. 



INHABITANTS OF THE CITY 35 

(3) The house in which I live is called my 

dwelling-house or my home. 

(4) The place in which I live is called my 

dwelling-place. 

(5) The region or country in which my dwell- 

ing-place lies is called my home or my 
country. 

(6) Every person ought to know something 

about his home or country. 

(7) Every man remembers his home kindly. 

When he is away from his home, he 
thinks with pleasure of returning. He 
has pleasant memories of home. 

(8) Every man feels that he owes something 

to his country. When it is in dangc;^ 

he will do all he can for it ; he will die 

for it, if necessary. 

N'OTE. — The above matter should be prepared in 

lessons in such a way that children will feel some of the 

force of the expression ^'Our Country". 

Stories told and pictures shown of life in America^ 
especially of life in New York, New England, the 
West, and the South. Stories and pictures of the 
Revolution. 

Meaning of Our Flag, Lincoln^s birthday, Washing- 
ton's birthday. Arbor day. Decoration day. Fourth of 
July, Labor day, general election day, and Thanks- 
giving. 



36 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

N. B. — In the indicated story work, do not lose sight 
'Of the fact that you are teaching geography. Only 
true stories should be told. Fairy tales, legends, and 
fables have no place here. Do not present outline 
jnaps. Good blackboard sketches are better now. 

4. Occupations, 

a. In what ways are the people of this city 
earning their living ? 
N. B. — Do not ask children to tell in what ways 
their parents are earning their living. Why not ? 

Note. — Present pictures of different kinds of occu- 
pations. 

5. Number. (Population, especially school popu- 

lation.) 

XI. The government of the city 

1. Officers. 

a. Names. 
]). Number. 

c. Duties. 

d. Term of office. 

e. Salaries. 

2. Election tickets presented, and manner of vot- 

ing explained. 
Note. — This work underlies political geography. 

XII. The surroundings of the city 

1. The river. 
a. Name. 



TH^ SUEROUifDINGS OF THE CITY 

t. Position with regard to the city. 

c. Source. 

d. Mouth. 



37 



Banks 



materials, 
names. 



( eastj west. 
/ right, left. 



/. Bed |^loP«-'-'»Pids- 

I precipice — falls. 



9- 


Channel. 


number. 


li. 


Windings < 


size. 

causes. 

uses. 


i. 


Current. 


J- 


Silt in river. 


Tc. 


Dimensions, — length, width, deptli 


I, 


Islands in. 




' flowing. 
Character of water ^ cold, 
fresh 


m 








water-supply. 






ice-supply. 


n. 


Uses < 


food-supply, 
water- road. 






wai 


er-power. 



38 rOUETH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

' name. 
0. Tributaries <j definition. 

^ parts, uses, etc.^ as of river. 
Note. — So far as possible the river itself should be 
studied. Excursions should be made to get facts first- 
hand, whenever practicable ; after which teacher repre- 
sent the river on molding board, and children draw it 
on paper. 

2. The laJce. 

a. Name. 

b. Position with regard to city. 



c. Shore 



materials. 

points. j peninsula. 

bays. ( cape,— promontory. 

Note. — Children should make drawings of sections 
of the shore to show height, formation, projections and 
indentations. 

d. Foot — outlet — St. Lawrence. 

N. B. — Teach inlet. Oswego river, Genesee river. 

e. Head. * 

slope. 



/. Bed 

' precipice. 

^^ ( force. 

a. Waves •< ,. ^ 

i action on shore and stones. 

Note. — Children bring to class water-worn stones. 



I. Uses 



THE SURROUiTDIKGS OF THE CITY 39 

also stones not water-worn, and compare their form 
and surfaces. 

Ji, Dimensions — length, width, depth. 
i. Islands in. 
NoTP]. — Present yiews of the Thousand Islands. 

' standing. 
/. Character of water i cold. 
^ fresh. 

^ ( proof of. 

Ic, Curvature ■< 

/ what inference ? 

water-supply. 

ice-supply. 

food-supply. 

water-road. 
m. Teacher represent lake on molding board, 
and children draw it on paper. Do not 
present the outline map. 

3. Harior. 
a. Name. 
h. Location. 

p,.^, . , \ How 2ret there ? 

c. Silt m water -l 
i How get it out ? Why ? 

d. Dimensions — length, width, depth. 

e. Uses. 
/. Care and expense of ? Assumed by whom ? 

4. Pier, 
a. Name. 



40 FOUKTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

h. Location. 

c. Dimensions — length, width, height. 

d. Uses. 

e. Care and expense of. Assumed by whom ? 

5. LigJit-lioiises. 
a. Names. 

h. Location. 

c. Height. 

d. Uses. 

e. Lights — kind of. 

( salary. 
^- ^^'^l^^'- j paid by ? 

g. Care and expense of ? Assumed by whom ? 
Note. — Present pictures of noted light-houses. 

6. Public roads. 
a. Name. 

h. Directions. 

c. Lead where ? 

d. Width — 3 or 4 rds. wide. 

e. Controlled by Avhom ? 

7. Cemeteries, 
a. Names. 
i. Location. 
c. Officers. 

8. Fair grounds, 
a. Name. 

l. Location. 



THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE CITY 41 

c. Uses. 

d. Officers. 

9. Asylum MIL 
a. Name. 

h. Location with regard to the city. 

c. Comparative_^height. 

" top (summit)j 

d. Parts \ bottom^ or foot (base), 

sides^(slopes) — length of. 

e. Materials. 

f outlook, 
/. Uses <( health — state of the atmosphere, 
(^ beauty. 
Note. — Present pictures of other hills, some of which 
should be very high (mountains). Children name parts 
as shown in pictures. 

10. Plain and valley. 

Note. — Ideas of plai7i and valley should be developed 
when excursions are made ; their locations noted, forms 
compared, and lastly definitions made by the children. 

The teacher should at all times make as careful 
preparation for an excursion as for laboratory work or 
as for a recitation. 

11. The country. — (Observe from highest point 

accessible to the class, as well as during 
excursions.) 

( hills, ridge of hills ; 
a. Land forms •< ,, 

i valleys, plains, swamps. 



c. Soil < 



42 FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

Note. — Observe the relation of valleys to hills. 

^^ ^ ( brooks, creeks ; 

0. Water forms ■{ 

I springs, ponds. 

Note. — Observe the relation of water forms to land 
forms. Compare ponds and swamps, observe likenesses 
and differences. Observe the relation of hills to springs, 
and of springs to streams. 

Nature. — G-ravel, sand, loam, clay. 
Color. — Gray, brown, black. 
Sources. 
Depth. 

Fertility. — Very fertile, fertile, poor 
or sterile. 

Note. — Collect soils in bottles or boxes and label 
each. 

( sandstone, 

) boulders (not native). 

Note. — Collect and label minerals. 

r for food (vegetables, fruits, 
I grains), 

e. Plants, — Uses { for lumber, 
for fuel, 
for medicine. 



THE SURROUNDINGS OF THE CITY 



43 



Note. — Specimens of native wood observed. Ob- 
serve differences in color, odor, hardness, arrangement 
of fibers (graining). 

kinds, 
uses. 



/. Animals < 



domestic 

kinds. 



wild 



uses. 



g. Products . 



animal 



vegetable 



mineral 



Note. — Present stuffed specimens or pictures of 
native wild animals. Visit the zoological laboratory. 

milk, butter, cheese, 

meats, 
fats, eggs, feathers, 
hides, hair, glue, 

fertilizer, etc. 
vegetables, fruits, 
grain, fodder, hay. 

{ sandstones, bricks, 
1 pottery, drain-tiles. 

' farming. 

gardening. 

dairying. 
h. Occupations <[ stock-raising. 

poultry-raising. 

quarrying. 
^ brick-making. 



44 



FOURTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 



Hamlets 



names. 

direction from the city. 
distance from the city. 
number of inhabitants, compared 
with each other and with the 
city. 

f commercial. 
/. Relations with the city { educational. 

social. 



B JUNIOE— FIFTH GRADE 



a. Spring < 



XIII. The Seasons 

months of ; 

comparative length of day and 

night ; 
general temperature ; 
atmospheric products ; 
sports of children ; 
occupations determined by season; 
holidays. 
l. Summer — See Spring. 

c. Autumn — See Spring. 

d. Winter — See Spring. 

Note. — Children make daily reports of the weather, 
rising and setting of the sun, etc., and record the same 
in a B. B. tabular view. 

Children learn how to use the almanac, to make 
individual records on paper, to average, to summarize, 
and to make weekly reports, stating at what hours 
observations were made. They should note points in 
the horizon which mark the sunrise and the sunset. 

Children draw horizon on paper the twenty-first day 
of each month, locate their own position, the cardinal 
and semi-cardinal points and the points of sunrise and 

sunset. 

(47) 



48 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

Children compare these points from month to month, 
state from what time to what time they decrease in dis- 
tance ; from what time to what time they increase in 
distance ; and when they are nearest together, and 
when farthest apart. 

Children led to observe when the shortest day occurs ; 
when the day and night are of equal length, and when 
the longest day occurs. 

Children led to state that the sun moves through 
space, and that it seems to move from east to west. 
Similar regarding the moon. Children asked to note 
at evening th« positions of certain stars in the heavens, 
as the evening star, etc. ; then, before retiring, note 
their positions again, and state as they have already 
stated regarding the sun and moon. 

Teach what twilight (two lights), and what evening 
and morning twilight are. 

Children should measure the shadoAV of a fixed object 
at noon, the twenty-first day of each month. This 
measure in feet and fraction of a foot, or inches and 
fraction of an inch, should be recorded. 

Children compare these measures from month to 
month, state from what time to what time they increase 
in length, from what time to what time they decrease 
in length, and note the date when the shadow is the 
, longest, when it is the shortest, and when its length 
is half the sum of its longest and shortest lengths. 



ATMOSPHEEIC PHENOMEI^A 49 

Lead children to observe that the longer the shadow, 
the shorter the distance of the sun from the horizon. 

Lead children to connect the shortest day, the low 
noon sun, its southerly position at rising and setting 
with the cold weather of winter. 

Lead children to connect the opposites of the above. 

N. B. — Do not present the globe. Do not attempt 
to explain these phenomena at this stage of the work. 
These facts, however, may be learned first-hand, and 
will render the study of astronomical and mathematical 
geography far easier in later lessons. Children may 
learn that things are so, long before they are able to 
learn luhy they are so. 

XIT. Atmospheric phenomena. 

1. Observe the rise and fall of water in the river. 

2. Observe effects of rains and melting snows upon 

the rise of the river. 
Observe the effect of continued drought upon 
the fall of the river. 

3. The water of the earth flows to the sea (ocean) 

in brooks, creeks, and rivers. 

4. During its course, a part of it rises into the air 

in the form of vapor. 
A part of the water of the sea rises into the air 
in the form of vapor, 
o. This vapor condenses into clouds. 



50 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

6. The clouds are driven by the wind over the 

whole earth. 
When they are heavy and full of water (vapor) 
they are dark gray, often nearly black. 

7. Water falls from the clouds in the form of rain, 

hail or snow. 

8. When the water vapor is in the air near the 

earth it is condensed on the plants in the 
form of dew. 
Frozen dew is called hoar frost, or rime. 

9. When the air near the earth is heavily laden 

with water-vapor, there is mist or fog. 

10. Clouds, rain, hail, snow, sleet, mist, fog, 

dew, and frost are aqueous atmo spheric phe- 
nomena. 

11. The atmosphere (the air) surrounds the earth. 

12. It varies at different times and in different 

places. 

13. It may be warm or cold, moist or dry, pure or 

impure. 

14. In spring the air is generally damp and cool, 

sometimes foggy. 

15. In summer the air is generally dry, warm, and 

sultry. 

16. In autumn — (See 14). 

17. In winter the air is generally dry and cold. 



BROOK BASIN" — FIELD LESSON^S 61 

18. Air moving from a certain direction is called 

according to its rapidity, zephyr, breeze,, 
gale, hurricane. 

19. The state of the atmosphere (the air) in regard 

to heat or cold, moisture or dryness, purity, 
or impurity, for a short period of time is 
called iveather. 

20. The state of the atmosphere in regard to heat 

or cold, moisture or dryness, purity or im- 
purity, for a long period of time is called 
climate. 
The prevailing weather of a region for a long 
period of time, is called climate. 

21. Three kinds of climate are distinguished ; hot, 

cold, and temperate. 
Note. — Local climate observed and distinguished. 

22. The condition of the land is influenced by 

winds and climate, as very fertile, fertile, etc. 

XT. Brook Basin— Field Lessons 

1. Preliminary questions — ansivers found in 
nature, 
a. How deep into the land does rain go ? 
I. What stops it ? 

c. In what direction does it flow then ? 

d. Why do not rains finally fill the soil ? 

e. What becomes of the water ? 
/. Where will it come out ? 



52 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

g. What is water springing from the earth 

called ? 
Ji. Where does most of the water of springs 

go? 
i. Where does water in brooks come from ? 
y. Where does the water in brooks go ? 
h. In what direction must a brook flow ? 
I. Why do some brooks flow more rapidly than 

others ? 
m. Why do brooks wind about ? 
n. What do brooks do for the land through 

which they flow ? 
0. Which holds water longer^ sand or loam ? 
p. What are all the uses of ^ water in the soil ? 
2. Brooh. 

a, Name — special. 

t. Location — direction and distance from the 

school-house. 

c. Source. _ 

d. Mouth. 

e. Direction of flow. 

( right, left ; 
/. Banks \ ) cardinal directions. 

I materials. 
g. Bed — The hollow which holds the brook. 
h. Channel. 



Current < 



BKOOK BASIK — FIELD LESSONS 53 

A moderate flow 
equals 6f rods per 
rapidity ■{ minute. 

A torrent flow equals 
100 rods per minute. 

f slope, 

deter- J ( number, 

mined by j windings -< 

[^ ( size. 

" number. 

size. 

y. Windings <J causes. 



I 



uses 



to brook, 
to man. 



Jc. Silt. 
I Delta. 

r length. 
m. Dimensions <j width. 
(^ depth. 
71. Islands in. 

f flowing. 
0. Water ^ cold. 
(^ fresh, 
water-supply, 
food-supply. 

Note. — Observe the relation of^(e), (g), (i), (j), (k), 
(m), and (n), to the character of the slopes. 



p. Uses 



54 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

3. Tributary. 

a. Name — special. 
J. Definition. 

c. Number. 

d. Location, parts, etc., as of brook. 

4. System, 

a. Definition. 

h. Name — special. 

5. Basin. 

a. Definition. 

h. Name — special. 

c. slopes. 

(1) Definition. 

(2) Number. 

( source, right, left. 

(3) Names \ • 

( apply cardinal directions. 

(4) Direction. 

( comparative. 
<5) Length \ 

( absolute. 

( number. 
(6) Breaks } 

( parts compared. 

{7) Degree (whether gradual or steep). 
(8) Soil (differences from brook to water- 
parting). 

f kind. 
{9) Vegetation ^ quantity. 

[ quality. 



BROOK BASII^ — FIELD LESSORS 55 

Note 1. — Children collect soils from different parts 
of the slope, label them with regard to locality, study 
them in the class-room, note differences, give reasons 
for the differences, and observe the relation of the 
character of the soil to the kind, quantity, and quality 
of the vegetation. 

Note 2. — Present pictures of slopes, and lead child- 
ren to state the character of the drainage. 

f Open (slopes on three sides from 

, „. , the water-parting). 
a. Kinds <( x- n/ 

I Closed (slopes on all sides from 

1^ the water-parting). 

i water-parting (definition). 
e. Boundary I 

( shore-line (definition). 

Note. — Lead children to observe that the water-part- 
ing of the brook basin is the crest of the ridge of land. 
/. Shape. (Open basins generally triangular.) 
g. Size. 
Note. — Teacher present, children find, brook basins 
in pictures. Teacher and children mold brook basin 
just studied. Teacher sketch brook basin on black- 
board. Children draw same on paper. 
QUESTIONS 
Teacher. — If the stones we see about us were used to 
build a tight wall across the open side of this brook 
basin, what would be the effect upon the flow of the 
brook ? 



56 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

Children. — It would stop the flow. 

T. How long would it stop the flow ? 

O. Until the basin was full ; or, until the water had 
reached the top of the wall ; or, until the water reached 
the lowest place in the water-parting. 

T. What will the water in the basin then be called ? 

G. A pond. 

T. And what kind of basin would the basin then be 
called ? 

C. A pond basin. 

T. Where would the brook and its tributaries be 
then ? 

C. At the bottom of the pond. 

T. What would all the land covered by the pond be 
of the pond ? 

C. The bed of the pond. 

T. What would the water-parting be of the pond ? 

G. The bank or shore of the pond. 

T. In what respect would the water of this pond be 
unlike the water of the brook ? 

G. It would be still water or standing water. 

Here lead the children to state that when man aids 
in the formation of a pond, it is called an artificial 
pond ; that when nature alone forms a pond, it is called 
a natural pond. 

Children name natural ponds in the vicinity of the 
school-house, one of which may be studied for the fol- 
lowing lesson. 



BROOK BASIK — FIELD LESSONS 57 

The work on artificial pond helps the child to a 
clearer notion of what a pond really is, — of its bed, 
slopes of bed, inlets and outlet, and its islands. 

The bed of the pond is uneven. Some of the high 
portions are little hills. Several of these hills are not 
entirely covered with water, and their tops form islands 
in the pond. 

If the foot of the pond were reduced to the level of 
the slopes at their lower edges, then the inlets would 
become tributaries of the outlet ; and the outlet and its 
tributaries would form a brook system. 

MATTER TO BE USED IN DEVELOPING IDEAS OF 
BROOK BASIN 

1. A small stream of water flowing through the 

land, is (sometimes) called a brook. 

2. A small stream of water flowing through the 

land, and into a brook, is a tributary of the 
brook into which it flows. 

3. A brook and all its tributaries is a brook syste7n. 

4. All the land drained by a brook and its tribu- 

taries, is a brook basin. 

5. Land surface which is neither horizontal nor 

vertical is a slope. 

6. Two slopes meeting at their lower edges, form 

the bed of the stream. 

7. A brook basin is a combination of slopes. 



58 FIFTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

8. The slope in which a. stream rises is called the 

source slope. 

9. The slope on the right side of a stream, is 

called the right slope. 

10. The slope on the left side of the stream, is 

called the left slope. 

11. A basin enclosed on three sides only is an open 

dasin. 

12. A basin enclosed on all sides is a closed basin. 

13. The line from which water flows in opposite 

directions, is a water-parting. 

14. Two slopes meeting at their upper edges, form 

a water-parting. 

15. The water-parting is a part or the whole of the 

bounding line of the brook basin. 

16. The line which separates two brook basins is a 

water-parting. 

XVI. Pond 

1. N'ame — special. Reasons for name. 

2. Definition. 

3. Position — direction and distance from school- 

house. 

4. Parts. 
" number — two. 

f right and left. 

names { cardinal directions ap- 
a. Shores ^ y ^^-^^^ 

according to height. 



kind , 

according to material. 



THE COU]S"TT 59 

^. Foot (consider outlet and inlets). 

c. Head. 

d. Bed. 

f length. 

e. Dimensions ^ width. 

1^ depth, 
number. 



/. Islands in 

form. 

' standing. 
g. Water <j cold. 
^ fresh. 
•5. Uses. 

a. Water supply. 
h. Ice supply. 
c. Food supply. 
l^OTE. — Teacher present pictures of ponds. Child- 
ren find and name parts. Teacher and children mold 
pond in sand. Children draw map of pond, using a 
-scale. 

XTn. The county— county map presented 

Note. — Eeview work on city map, especially with 
ireference to wards and natural features. 
1. Towns. 
a. Number. 
l. Names. 
H. Elvers. 
a. Name. 



60 riEIH GEADE GEOGEAPHT 

h. Location. 

c. Course. 

d. Flows into. 

e. Islands in. 
/. Uses. 

3. Lakes. 

a. Name. 
h. Location. 

c. Islands in. 

d. Uses. 

4. Falls. ^ a, Name. 

5. Mountains. | 

6. Mines. } i. Location, 

7. Quarries. 



8. Oaves. 

9. Railroads. 



c. Uses. 
e IX, 13, 14. 



10. Canals. 

11. Cities. 

12. County-seat. 

13. County officers. 
a. Names. 

1). Duties. 

c. Term of office. 

d. Salaries. 



A JUNIOR— SIXTH GRADE 



XTIII. The earth in space— one of the planets 

!N'OTE 1. — Eeview, with objects, sphere, surface, 
spherical surface, diameter, and circumference. Pre- 
sent sphere, and lead children to state how much of its 
surface can be seen at one time. 

Lead children to discover that a spherical surface 
obstructs the view between two given points. 

Lead children to discover that a plane surface does 
not obstruct the view between two given points. 

Eeview cardinal points, si^iid position of 7iorth star. 

Have children trace the apparent course of the sun 
from sunrise to sunset. 

Note 2. — Plain spheres, not globes, should be used in 
this work. 
1. Shape. 

a. If a man travel eastward from l^ew York and 

continue in the same direction, he will in 
time come to New York again. 

b. If a man travel westward from San Fran- 

cisco, CaL, and continue in the same 
direction he will in time come to San 
Francisco again. 
Query. — That a man may be able to continue his jour- 
ney eastward or westward, and return to his starting 

(63) 



64 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

place^ what shape do you think the earth must be in 
these directions ? 

c. Wherever men may be on the ocean they see 

the masts of a ship in the distance^ before 
they see the body of the ship, although the 
body is larger than the masts. 

d. Wherever seamen approach the shore, they 

see the highest points of land first. 

QUESTIONS 

(1) What is there between ships at sea and 

ships at the shore ? 

(2) What, do you think must be true of 

the surface of the ocean, that men 
can not see the whole of distant 
objects at one time ? 

(3) Since the ocean covers about three- 

fourths of the surface of the earth, - 
what shape do you think the whole 
surface of the earth is ? 

(4) Then what is the earth, thinking of its 

shape ? 
2. Revolution. 
Note. — Eecall a ride on the cars. When you looked 
through the car window, what was peculiar about the 
appearance of the objects you saw ? (Rocks, trees, etc.) 
In what direction did they appear to move, thinking of 
the direction of the cars ? While you looked at the 



THE EARTH AS A PLAi^ET 65 

rocks, trees, etc., what seemed true of your own 
motion ? 

a. Near what point do we first see the morning 

sun ? 
h. ]^ear what point do we last see the evening 
sun ? 

c. How does the sun seem to move with regard 

to the earth ? 

d. Once all people believed this ; now it is be- 

lieved only by ignorant people. It has 
been proved that the earth moves around 
the sun, that it moves from west to east, 
and that it takes a year for the earth to 
return to a given starting point. 

e. The moving of the earth around the sun, is 

called a revolution. 

f. The course of the earth around the sun, is 

called the orlit of tJie earth. 

g. Since the earth is a sphere, how much of its 

surface must be in sunlight at one time ? 

h. What do we call the period of time from sun- 
rise to sunset ? 

i. What do we call the period of time from sun- 
set to sunrise ? 

J. What is the length of the period of time 
from sunrise to sunrise ? 

h. Then how often do we have a period of sun- 
light ? 



66 SIXTH GEADB GEOGRAPHY 

I. Upon what does the earth depend for its 
light ? 

m. Since the earth depends upon the sun for 
light, having none of its own, and since it 
revolves around the sun, it is called d^ planet 
of the sun, 

n. Planet means wanderer. 

0. The exact time in which the earth revolves 
around the sun, is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 
minutes, and 48 seconds. 

p. Because each year contains almost three 
hundred sixty-five and one-fourth days, 
every fourth year is reckoned three hun- 
dred sixty-six days. 

q. To which month is the extra day added ? 

r. Why do you think it is added to this month 
rather than to any other ? 

s. What is a year of three hundred sixty-six 
days called ? 

t. Because every fourth year leaps forward a 
day, it is called leap-year. 

u. What is a year of three hundred sixty-five 
days called ? 

3. Rotation. 

a. Since the sun does not move around the 
earth, and since it takes the earth a year to 
move around the sun, what must occur to 



THE EARTH AS A PLAKET 67 

give us a period of sunlight every twenty- 
four hours ? 
h. Since the earth is a sphere^ it must turn on 
a diameter. 

c. The turning of the earth on a diameter is 

called the rotation of the earth, 

d. What does the rotation of the earth produce ? 

e. How often does the earth perform a rotation ? 

[Illustrate direction of rotation.] 
/. The diameter on which the earth rotates is 

called the axis of the earth, 
g. The axis extends through the earth north 

and south. 
h. The ends of the earth^s axis are called poles, 
i. The northern end of the earth^s axis is the 

north pole, 
j. The southern end of the earth's axis is the 

south pole. 
h. The north pole is the most northern point of 

the earth's surface. 
I. The south pole is the most southern point of 

the earth's surface. 
m. The north pole points toward the north 

star. 
Note. — Teacher present a plain sphere, and say, 
'' For a few moments, let this represent the earth." ^ 
(1) Touch two points between which the axis may 

extend. 



68 SIXTH GKADE GEOGRAPHY 

(2) In what directions does the axis extend ? 

(3) Hold the sphere so that the axis will extend 

in its true directions. 

(4) Eotate the sphere as the earth rotates. 

(5) Touch the most northern point of the sphere. 

(6) What does this point represent of the. earth ? 

(7) To what does it point ? 

(8) Touch the most southern point of the sphere. 

(9) What does the point represent of the earth ? 

(10) How often does the earth perform a rotation ? 

(11) How often does the earth perform a revolu- 

tion ? 

(12) How many days in a year ? 

(13) How many rotations does the earth perform 

during one revolution ? 

(14) How many motions has the earth ? 

(15) Teacher get terms, daily or diurnal motion ; 

also yearly or annual motion, 
4. Size. 

a. It has been found by calculation that the axis 

of the earth is the shortest diameter of the 

earth. 
5. The axis of the earth is called the polar 

diameter of the earth, 
c. The polar diameter is twenty -six miles shorter 

than the longest diameter of the earth. 
d. Because the polar diameter is the shortest 



THE EARTH AS A PLANET 69 

diameter, what do you think is true about 
the shape of the earth at the poles ? 
e. If a man could travel on the longest diameter 
through the earth at the rate of 300 miles 
per day ; it would take him almost 26^ 
days to make the journey. What is true 
about the length of the longest diameter 
of the earth ? 

Note. — The longest diameter of the earth is 7,925 
miles. 

/. If a man travel at the rate of 300 miles per 
day, he may travel around the earth in 
about 83 days. About what is the circum- 
ference of the earth ? 
NoTE.^The greatest circumference of the earth is 
24,899 miles. 

g. The circle which measures the greatest cir- 
cumference of the earth is, at all points, 
half-way between the poles. 
h. The circle which measures the greatest 
circumference of the earth is called the 
equator, 
i. In geography, a circumference is called a 
circle, therefore the greatest circle of the 
earth is called the equator, 
j. A diameter terminated by the equator is 
called an equatorial diameter. 



70 SIXTH GKADE GEOGEAPHY 

Ic. An equatorial diameter is longer than any 

other diameter. 
Z. An equatorial diameter is twenty-sis miles 
longer than the polar diameter. 
Note. — Children show with sphere what is meant by 
the axis of the earth, and state which diameter it is 
with regard to length and location. Children locate 
longest diameter and give special name. Children 
compare equatorial and polar diameters with regard to 
direction and length. 
5. Hemispheres. 
Note. — Teach hemispheres with plain spheres and 
Tiemispheres. 

a. The equator divides the earth into two equal 

parts. 
Each part is called a hemisphere. '^Hemis- 
phere '^ means half-sphere. 
h. Since the equator is a circle, and [since it 
divides the earth into two equal parts, it is 
called a great circle. 

c. What is the hemisphere north of the equator 

called ? 

d. What is the hemisphere south of the equator 

called ? 
6. Latitude. 
Note. — Teach latitude with plain spheres. 

a. Distance north and south from ^the equator 

is called latitude. 



THE EARTH AS A PLAKET 71 

l. Distance north, from the equator is north 
latitude. 

c. Distance south from the equator is south 

latitude. 

d. Places in the northern hemisphere are in 

north latitude. 

e. Places in the southern hemisphere are in 

south latitude. 
/. In what latitude is the north pole ? Why ? 
g. In what latitude is the south pole ? Why ? 
h. Where does latitude begin ? Then in what 

latitude is the equator ? 
^. Where does latitude end ? What amount of 
distance have the poles from the equator ? 
Then what latitude have the poles ? 
Note. — When latitude and longitude are taught in 
close succession of time, the terms are usually con- 
founded. Hence, it is better to defer the teaching of 
longitude for a while. 

Because the teaching of longitude is deferred, the 
teaching of eastern and western hemispheres is neces- 
sarily deferred. 

At this point review or teach ohjectively the table of 
circular measure. Emphasize the fact that circular 
measure deals with distance, and that its minutes and 
seconds must not be confounded with minutes and 
seconds of time. 



72 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

Lead children to see that the length of a degree varies 
with the size of the circle. 
7. TJie Seasons. 

Note. — Review objectively axis, and terms, vertical, 
horizontal f oUique, perpendicular, inclined, inclination, 
and orbit. 

Review source of the earth^s light, names of the months 
in order, time of shortest day and of longest day, time 
when day and night are equal, time of lowest mid-day 
sun, and of highest mid-day sun. (See indicated work 
in note under XIII.) 

a. Teacher lead children to find surfaces which 
may be parallel to all points of the straight 
edge of a ruler. Children or teacher give 
term plane surface. 
h. A plane surface is often called a plane. 

c. A surface, any two points of which may be 

joined by a straight line, so that every point 
of that line will be in the surface, is a plane. 

d. The space bounded by the earth^s orbit, is 

called the plane of the earth's orlit. 

e. Illustrations. 

(1) Out a large disc of paper. Draw a colored 
line around its margin. Place paper in 
horizontal position. What may the 
colored line represent ? What may the 
paper within the line represent ? 



THE EAKTH AS A PLANET 73 

(2) Describe a large circumference on black- 
board. What may the circumference 
represent ? 
What may the space inclosed represent ? 
/. Teacher describe a circumference on black- 
board (west blackboard if possible), draw its 
horizontal diameter, and its vertical diam- 
eter, and divide upper right quadrant into 
four equal parts by drawing radii. 

Children state at each step what the teacher 
has done. Children hold rulers to repre- 
sent the vertical diameter, and then incline 
them to the right (which should be north) 
a trifle more than one-fourth of a quadrant. 

Children state that one-fourth of a quadrant 
equals 22^°. Teacher tell children that 
the inclination exceeding 22^ degrees is one 
degree, hence the amount or inclination is 
23i degrees. 

Children hold spheres so that their axes are 
vertical, and then incline them northward 
23^ degrees. 

Teacher hold inclined sphere (say) at the 
southern point in the colored margin of the 
paper disc. (See III. in e.) 

Children state what the margin of the paper 
and the sphere represent. 



74 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

Children state that since these objects repre- 
sent the o^'Mt, the plane of the earth's orlit, 
and the earth, then the earth^s axis is in- 
clined 23^ degress to X^iq plane of the earth's 
orlit. 

Children show the inclination using black- 
board circumference. 
g. Teacher question for position of sun in earth's 

orbit. 
h. Teacher illustrate position of earth in its 
orbit on March 21, and the relation of the 
position to the light of the sun. 

Similar work with reference to June 21, Sep- 
tember 21, and December 21. 

The teacher state that these dates are really the 
dates when the seasons begin. The seasons 
are caused by the inclination of the earth^s 
axis to the plane of the earth's orbit. 
8. Zones. 

a. Children represent poles and equator on a 
plain sphere. 

Teacher illustrate what is meant by vertical 
rays of the sun, and when rays are vertical 
at the equator. 

Teacher illustrate northern limit of vertical 
rays ; locate (direction and distance from 
the equator) and represent the circle which 
bounds the limit. . 



THE EAETH AS A PLA^-ET 75 

This circle is called the Tropic of Cancer, 
h. Teach objectively that when the sun^s rays 
are vertical at the Tropic of Cancer, the 
sun lights the earth 23-| degrees beyond the 
north pole. During a rotation of the earth, 
the line of light describes a circle. 
Teacher locate (direction and distance from 

the north pole), and represent the circle. 
This circle is called the Arctic Circle, 
o. In a similar way, teacJi and locate. Tropic of 

Capricorn and Antarctic Circle. 
d. G-et from children the terms. Polar circles. 
North Polar circle, and South Polar circle. 
^. The divisions of the earth^s surface made by 
the tropics and polar circles, are called zones, 
f. Teach boundary, width, climate, and name 
of each zone. 
IN'OTE 1.— Teach what is meant by small circles of the 
earth and parallels. 

Note 2. — Children locate tropics and polar circles 
with regard to latitude. Children give exact latitude 
of tropics, polar circles, and yoles. Children state the 
distance in degrees of each pole from the equator and 
of one pole from the other, and note the relation of the 
•distance to the circumference of the earth. 
9. Longitude. 

a. The circumference of the earth north and 
south is called a meridian circle. 



76 SIXTH GEADE GEOGKAPHY 

h. A meridian circle divides the earth into two 
equal parts. 

c. Since a meridian circle divides the earth into 

two equal parts, it is called a great circle. 

d. How many meridian circles may there be ? 

e. One-half of a meridian circle, extending from 

one pole to the other, is called a msridian. 

f. The meridian passing through Greenwich, 

England, is called ih.Q prime meridian. 

g. Distance east or west from the prime mer- 

idian, is called longitude. 

h. Teach and distinguish between east and toest 
longitude. 

i. The meridian circle 20 degrees west from 
Greenwich divides the earth into eastern 
and western hemispheres. Why this meri- 
dian circle ? Why not some other ? 

/. Questions. 

(1) Where does longitude begin ? Then in 

what longitude is the prime meridian ? 

(2) What amount of distance have the poles 

from the prime meridian ? Then what 
longitude have the poles ? 

(3) What latitude and longitude has a place 

where the prime meridian crosses the 
equator ? 

(4) What is the greatest longitude a place 

can have ? 



THE SUN — THE MOOK 77 

(5) What longitude may it be called ? 

(6) Whether it is east or west longitude upon 

what will it depend ? 

XIX. The Sim 

1. The sun is a sphere of the fiercest fire. 

2. The sun gives light and heat because it is white- 

hot. 

3. The sun rotates upon its axis once in tv/enty-fiye 

days. 

4. The size of the sun is to the size of the earth, as 

the size of a sphere two feet in diameter is to 
the size of a sphere one-fifth of an inch in 
diameter. 
Note. — Teacher draw blackboard circles to show com- 
parative sizes. 

5. The sun appears small because it is so very far 

from us. 

6. The sun is millions (91-J) of miles from the 

earth. 

7. It takes eight minutes for light to go from the 

sun to the earth. 

8. The sun really sets eight minutes before it seems 

to set. 

XX. The Moon 

Note.— So far as possible, let the moon tell her own 
story. When she cannot be understood let simple ap- 
paratus, stereopticon views, good pictures, and plain 
diagrams, be her interpreters. 



78 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

1. The moon is a sphere. 

2. The diameter of the moon is a little more than 

one-fourth as long as the diameter of the earth. 
Note. — The diameter of the moon is two thousand 
one hundred sixty-five miles. 

3. The moon appears small because it is so far 

from us. 

4. The moon is thousands (240) of miles from the- 

earth. 

5. When the moon looks like a circle, it is said to 

hQfull. 

6. When the moon looks like a crescent, it is said 

to be new or old. 

7. When the ends of the crescent point towards our 

left, it is new moon. We see the new moon in 
the west at evening. 

8. When the ends of the crescent point towards 

our right, it is old moon. We see the old moon 
in the east in the morning. 
Note. — The period of time from one new moon to 
another is called lunation. 

9. When the moon is full it is called half-moon, 

because it has then performed one-half of its 
lunation. 
The half-moon shows just one-half of its surface* 
10. When the moon looks like one-half a circle, it. 
is called a quarter. 



THE MOOIf 79 

When the moon is a qnarter, it shows just one- 
fourth of its surface. 

11. The quarter before full moon is called first- 

quarter, because the moon has then performed 
the first quarter of it lunation. 
The moon when first quarter shines the first half 
of the night, and sets at midnight. 

12. The quarter after full moon is usually called 

last quarter, although the moon has then per- 
formed but three-quarters of its lunation. 
The moon when last quarter shines the last half 
of the night. It rises at midnight. 

13. The full moon that occurs nearest the twenty- 

first of September is called the Harvest moon, 

14. The Harvest moon rises but a little later (about 

twenty-three minutes) for several successive 
evenings, and thus affords light for collecting 
the harvest. 

15. The changes of the moon's illuminated surface 

from a thin crescent to a circle and from a 
circle to a thin crescent are called phases. 

16. The moon's phases show that the moon has no 

light of its own. 

17. If we were on the moon, the earth would pre- 

sent to us phases similar to those which the 
moon presents to us now. 

18. The bright portions of the moon's surface are 



80 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

highlands in sunlight. The dark portions are 
lowlands in the shadows of the highlands. 

19. The bright and dark portions of the moon's sur- 

face taken together look like a face. The face 
is called the '^ man in the moon^^ 

20. The surface of the moon is covered with steep 

rocks, volcanic craters, and long mountain 
chains. 

21. The moon, like the earth, was once a burning 

star. 

22. The moon revolves around the eai'th from west 

to east once in about twenty-seven and one- 
third days. 

23. The moon rotates on its axis from west to east, 

in exactly the same time that it revolves 
around the earth. 

24. Because the moon rotates upon its axis and 

revolves around the earth in exactly the same 
time, it always presents the same side to us. 

25. The moon with the earth is revolving around 

the sun at the rate of about one thousand miles 
per minute. 

26. Because the moon revolves around the earth 

and, at the same time, revolves with the earth 
around the sun, it is called a satellite (of the 
earth). 



ECLIPSES 81 

XXI. Eclipses 

!N"0TE. — Use simple apparatus, stereopticon views, 
good pictures, and plain diagrams, but do not lose sight 
of the heavenly bodies. 

1. When the moon passes between the earth and 

the sun it hides the sun partially or wholly 
from our view. We then say there is an eclipse 
of the sun. 

2. When the moon partially hides the sun from our 

view, we say there is a partial eclipse of tlie 
sun. 

3. When the moon wholly hides the sun from our 

view, we say there is a total eclipse of the sun. 

4. An eclipse of the sun is called a solar eclipse. 

5. When the shadow of the earth partially or 

wholly hides the moon from our view, we say 
there is an eclipse of the moon. 

6. Teach partial eclipse of the moon. 

7. Teach total eclipse of the moo7i. 

8. Teach lunar eclipse. 

9. In an eclipse of the moon we always see a shadow 

with a circular edge moving across the moon. 
This shadow is known to be the shadow of the 
earth, and it is always the same whatever part 
of the earth may be facing the moon at the 
time. To cast a circular shadow in any posi- 
tion, the earth must be a sphere. 



82 SIXTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

XXII. The Planets 

1. Eeview what has been taught regarding the 

earth as a planet, the body around which it 
revolves, the direction in which it revolves, 
the source of its light and heat, and the mean- 
ing of the term planet. 

2. There are other planets which revolve around 

the sun from west to east at different distances 
from it. 

3. All of the planets receive their light and heat 

from the sun. 

4. The names of the planets in their order from 

the sun are. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, 
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. 

5. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are 

each larger than the earth. 

6. Mercury, Venus, and Mars, are each smaller 

than the earth. 

7. Jupiter is the largest of the planets. 

8. Mercury is the smallest of the planets. 

9. Mercury is not seen by us often, and then only 

near the horizon for a few minutes after sun- 
set or before sunrise. 

10. Each planet except Mercury shines with a steady 

light. 

11. Venus is the most brilliant of all the planets. 

Objects in its light cast decided shadows. 



THE STAES 83 

Venus is called the morning star when it shines 

in the east, and the evening star when it shines 

in the west. 

I^^OTE. — Lead children to distinguish Venus, Mars, 

and Jupiter, and to note the character and the color of 

their light. 

Present stereopticon views, pictures or blackboard 
drawings, to show the comparative sizes of the planets, 
as well as to illustrate their relative distance from the 
sun. 
XXIII. Tiie Stars 

1. The stars are spheres of the fiercest fire. 

2. The stars shine because they are white-hot, 

3. The stars shine with a twinkling light. 

4. A group of stars always moving in the same 

direction and at the same distance from each 
other, is called a constellation. 
The dipper is a part of the constellation called 
the Great Bear. 

5. In the whole heavens the stars which can be 

distinctly seen with the naked eye, do not 
exceed six thousand. Since only one-half of 
the heavens is visible at once, then only 
three thousand stars can be seen at one time. 

6. At night we often see a belt of pale light span- 

ning the sky, and frequently dividing it into 
two nearly equal portions. This belt is called 
the Milky Way. 



84 SIXTH GEADE OEOGEAPHY 

7. The milky way is composed of millions (at 

least eighteen millions) of stars so faint and 
apparently so near together that the eye can 
see only a dim, continuous glitter, 

8. Some stars seem smaller than others, because 

they are farther from us. Some stars are 
really smaller than others. 

9. Some stars shine with greater brightness than 

others. 

10. The brightest stars are called stars of the first 

magnitude. 

11. Some stars shine with a reddish light, some 

with an orange, some with a blue, and some 
with a white light. 

12. Stars which shine with their own light, and 

seem never to change their position, are called 
fixed stars. 

13. The sun is a fixed star. The North Star is a 

fixed star. 

14. Light goes from the North Star or Polar Star 

to the earth in forty-five years. 

15. Sometimes we see what appear like stars fall- 

ing from the sky. - They are not stars, but 
7neteors. 

16. Bodies which are illuminated by a fixed star 

around which they revolve, are called planets, 
Note. — In teaching the above, the children should 



COMETS 85 

be led to observe the character of the light of the stars, 
the Dipper, the Milky Way, the difference in the bright- 
ness and color of stars, the North Star as a fixed star, 
and meteors. 
XXiy. Comets 

1. Sometimes strange bodies resembling stars with 

long shining trains appear in the heavens. 
These bodies are called comets. 

2. The star-like part is called the head (or nucleus) 

of the comet. The long shining train is called 
the tail of the comet. 

3. Comets move more rapidly than any other 

heavenly bodies. 
Note — Show stereopticon views, pictures, and black- 
board drawings of comets 



C SENIOE— SEYENTH GRADE 



XXY. The Earth as a Whole— The Home of Man 

JS"OTE. — The following questions will suggest a review 
which should precede the study of the earth as a whole. 

1. What is the earth, thinking of its shape ? 

2. In what directions does the earth^s axis extend ? 

3. What is the inclination of the earth^'s axis in 

degrees ? 
(Here the teacher should present a simple physical 
globe free from all astronomical attachments^ and place 
it in position as to direction and inclination of axis.) 

4. What is this, thinking of its shape ? 

5. In what directions does its axis extend ? 

6. What seems to be the inclination of its axis ? 

7. Since this is a sphere whose axis extends north 

and south and inclines 23|- degrees^ what may 
it represent ? 

8. Since this sphere represents the earth, luliat of 

the earth may its surface represent ? 

9. Of what is the surface of the earth composed ? 
10. Then what may the surface of this sphere repre- 
sent ? 

(Here the children should be led to state what color 
represents water, and what represents land ; how the 
extent of water surface compares with the extent of 

(89) 



90 SBYEN^TH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

land surface ; that the water surface may be traversed 
without crossing the land, but that the land surface 
cannot be traversed without crossing the water.) 

11. Since the surface of this sphere rejDresents the 

land and water as they are found on the surface 
of the earth, what is this sphere called ? 

12. How much of the surface of the earth repre- 

sented on the globe, can be seen at one time ? 

13. What must be done to see the other half ? 
(Here get expression of ideas of hemisphere, meridian 

circle, eastern and western hemispheres. Teacher rotate 
the globe so that each hemisphere may be represented. 
Locate poles, equator, northern and southern hemis- 
pheres. 

Teacher present physical map of the hemispheres and 
lead children to compare its representations with the 
representations of the globe.) 

14. Because this is a drawing of the earth's surface 

on a plane, what is it called ? 
With the aid of the physical hemisphere map and the 
physical globe, teach what is indicated in the following 
tabular view : 

1. Continents. 

a. Number. 

b. Names. 

c. Form. 

d. Relative size. 



THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 91 

e. Relative position. 
/. In what hemispheres ? 
g. Boundaries. 
Defijs'ITIoi^' : — The great land divisions of the sur- 
face of the earth are called continents, 

2. Oceans. 

See 1, above, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, same. 

DEFiiq-iTiOiT : — The great divisions of the sea made 
by the continents are called oceans. 

Note. — The story of Columbus briefly told and his 
voyages traced on the map and globe. 

3. Islands. 

Note. — Show pictures of islands. Have children 
recall islands which they have seen. 
a. Continental. 
t. Oceanic. 
c. Distribution — near what continent or in what 



ocean 



Note. — Show pictures of continental and oceanic 
islands, also any noted islands ; name and locate each 
on map and globe. 
4. Coast Line. 

Definition : — The land next to the sea is called the 
coast. The line where the land and sea meet is called 
the coast li?ie. 

Note. — Show pictures of noted coasts. Locate these 
coasts on map and globe. 



92 SEVENTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

a. Continental irregularity. 
}). Land projections — peninsulas or capes. 
Teacli names of peninsulas and capes. 

(1) Position — from what part of what con- 

tinent ? 

(2) Adjoining waters — arms of what ocean ? 
c. Water projections — gulfs or bays. Teach 

names of gulfs and bays. 

(1) Position — from what part of what 

oceans ? 

(2) Adjoining lands — projections of what 

continents ? 

Note. — Associate some physical^ commercial, or his- 
torical event with each projection located. 

Compare the coast line of the continents each with 
the others, with regard to irregularity. 

Compare the projections of the continents with re- 
gard to number and size ; also with regard to the direc- 
tion in which they project. 

5. Relief 

a. World Ridge. 
Note. — Lead children to observe a ridge, — its direc- 
tion, length, height, and appearance at the crest ; also 
to observe the slopes, — their degree and comparative 
lengths. 

Lead children to observe basin, — the number, com- 
parative length, and degree, of the slopes which form it. 



THE EA.RTH AS A WHOLE 93 

, Lead children to observe the water-parting, the shape, 
•extent, and lowest part of the basin. 

Children use these concepts to apperceive the world 
ridge. 

Use relief globe and relief map of the land hemi- 
sphere. 

(1) Direction. 

(2) Length traced. 

(3) Eelative height. 

(4) Highest place in. 

(5) Lowest place in. 

(6) Form — horse-shoe. 

(7) Slopes — their degree and comparatiye 

lengths. 
5. Primary Highlands. 

(1) Location. 

(2) Number (4). 

(3) Names. 

(4) Comparative length, width, and height. 
Note. — Show pictures of portions of primary high- 
lands. 

c. Secondary Highlands. 

(1) Location. 

(2) Number (4). 

(3) Names. 

(4) Comparative length, width, and height. 
Note. — Show pictures of portions of secondary high- 
lands. 



94 SEVENTH GRADE GEOGRAPHT 

d. Lowlands^Great Plains. 

(1) Location in continents. 

(2) Number (4). 

(3) I^ames. 

(4) Physical characteristics of each. 

(5) Comparative extents. 

^OTE. — Show pictures of portions of lowlands. As-- 
sociate physical, commercial, or historical facts witb- 
each. 

6. Drainage. 

KoTE. — Review world ridge. TJie contifiuous moun- 
tain chain encircling the land masses of the globe, is 
called the world ridge. 

a. World water-parting formed by the crest of 

the world ridge. 

b. World-Basins. 

(1) Location — formed by ? 

(2) Number (2). 

(3) Names. — Atlantic and Pacific. 

(4) Form. 

(5) Comparative extent and depth. 

(6) Great plains located in. 

c. World Eiver Systems. 

Note. — Review brook systems, — location of sources ^ 
(highlands) dependence of direction^ lengthy rapidity 
of flow, and the final reservoir. 
(1) Atlantic Systems. 



THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 95 

Note. — Children observe here the characteristics of 
the Atlantic Slope as represented on the physical globe 
and physical hemisphere map. 

Children infer the characteristics of the rivers, find 
the principal rivers and name them, study pictures of 
these rivers, and facts of interest concerning them. 

Study La Plata river, Amazon, Orinoco, Mississippi, 
St. Lawrence, Mackenzie, Lena, Yenesei, Obi, Dwina, 
Ehine, Danube, Nile, and Congo. 
(2) Pacific Systems. 

Note. — Teach in the order named for Atlantic 
Systems. 

Study Colorado, Columbia, Hoang-Ho, Ganges, 
Indus, Zambezie. 

Children observe in the study of rivers that rivers 
flowing down the same slopes are parallel, and that 
rivers flowing down adjacent slopes often meet and form 
a river that flows down the line formed by the meeting 
of adjacent slopes at their lower edges. 

7. Olimate. 

Note. — Eeview climate and recall definition. 
a. Zones. 

8. Winds. 

Note. — Review wind. 
a. Causes. 
h. Kinds (variable, periodical, constant). 

c. G-eneral direction. 

d. Different zones characterized by what winds ? 



•96 SEVENTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

9. Rainfall. 

a. Formation of clouds and rain. 
h. Distribution of vapor. 
c. Amount of rainfall. 

10. Ocean currents. 

Note. — Study currents with the aid of globes, maps, 
and blackboard drawings. 
a. Location. 
1). Direction of flow. 

c. Names. 

d. Temperature. 

11. Soil — regions of great fertility and of great 

sterility. 
Note. — Children base their inferences upon climate 
and relief. Children locate great deserts. 

12. Products. 

a. Agricultural — Wheat, corn, rice, cotton. 
5. Grazing — Meats, fats, hides, wool. 

c. Lumbering — Building materials. 

d. Mining — Coal, iron, copper, silver and gold. 
So far as may be consistent, present products 

in their raw and in their manufactured 
state. 

13. People. 

a. Eaces — Show pictures. 
h. Distribution. 
Note. — Show globe or map whose colors represent 
the distribution of the races. 



B SENIOR— EIGHTH GEADE 



XXTI. A Continent as a Whole — Use Eelief Maps. 
A. North America. N. B. — Pupils mold and draw- 
each continent studied. 

1. Position. 

a. With regard to other continents. 
h. " an oceans. 

c. '^ " " hemispheres. 

d. " '' '' world ridge. 

2. Form. 

a. Approximate form. 

h. Continental irregularity. 

c. Land projections — peninsulas or capes, 

(1) Position — from what part of the conti- 

nent. 

(2) xidjoining water — arms of what oceans. 

d. Water projections — gulfs or bays. 

(1) Position — from what part of what oceans. 

(2) Adjoining lands — what peninsulas or 

capes. 

3. Islands — Gontinental. 
a. Names. 

1). Position. 

(1) With regard to the continent. 

(2) In what water. 

c. Formation. 

(99) 



100 EIGHTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

4. Extent. 

a. In latitude. 
1). In longitude. 

c. In linear miles — length and breadth. 

d. In square miles — area. 

5. Relief. 

a. Primary Highlands. 

(1) Name. 

(2) Position. 

(3) Direction. 

(4) Extent. 

(5) Ranges. 

{a) Peaks — names, heights. 
(J) Volcanoes — names, heights. 

(6) Slopes. 

{a) Directions. 
{b) Extent. 

(7) Valleys. 

(8) Plateaus. 

h. Secondary Highlands. 
Note. — See order for Primary Highlands. 

c. Islands. 

Note. — Relief of islands compared with relief of con- 
tinent. 

d. Lowlands. 

(1) Name. 

(2) Position. 

(3) Extent. 



A CONTINEi^T AS A WHOLE 101 

(4) Physical characteristics. 

6. Drainage. 

a. Great water-partings — crests of what high- 
lands. 

§. Grreat basins — name, position, form, and ex- 
tent of each. 
Note. — For the study of individual basins, see XV, 5. 

c. Great river systems. 

(1) Principal river described. 

(2) Principal tributaries described. 

d. Lakes. 

7. Climate — Temperature, moisture, healthfulness. 
a. With regard to zones. 

h, ^' '' '' seasons. 

c. '' '^ " particular localities. 

d. ^' ^^ ^' prevailing winds. 

e. '^ '' '^ adjacent waters. 

8. ^0^7. 

a. Kinds. 

(1) Origin — glacial, alluvial, diluvial, m 
situ, etc. 

(3) Formation — sandy, clayey, loamy, mar- 

laceous, etc. 
(3) Fertility. 

9. Natural productions, 

a. Vegetable — physical characteristics of region. 
h. Animal— '' " " " 

c. Mineral— '' '' '' '' 



102 EIGHTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

10. People. 

a. Eaces. 

h. Distribution. 

11. Countries. — Use political maps. 

a. Position — in the continent. 

b. Boundary — especially natural. 

c. Extent. 

d. Belief. 

e. Drainage. 
/. Climate. 
g. Soil. 

li. Productions. 
i. People. 

(1) Dominant race. 

(2) Leading occupations — manufacturing 

cities. 

(3) Leading commercial cities. 

(4) Leading commercial routes — sea-ports. 

(5) Government — capital cities. 

(6) Eeligion. 

(7) Education — educational centers. 
B. South America — See North America. 
0. Europe— 

D. Asia— 
E Africa— 
F. Australia— 



A SENIOE— NINTH GRADE 



XXyil. A Country — Use relief, political, and his- 
torical maps. 
Note. — The teacher's port-folio and scrap-book will 
be daily requisites. Personal accounts of travel, the 
stereopticon, and text-books, must serve when practic- 
able. 

1. Name. 

a. Derivation. 

2. Position. 

a. Continental, peninsular, or insular. 
h. Latitudinal and longitudinal. 

3. Boundaries, 
a. Natural. 
h. Political. 

4. Extent. 

a. Length, 

b. Breadth, 

c. Area. 

5. Relief. 

a. Mountains, 

(1) systems, 

(2) ranges, 

(3) peaks — volcanoes. 

1). Plateaus, 

(105) 



106 iflNTH GEADE GEOGRAPHY 

(1) extent, 

(2) character. 

c. Plains, 

(1) extent, 

(2) character. 

d. Valleys, 

(1) extent, 

(2) character. 

6. Drainage, 
a. Rivers, 

(1) general direction of flow, 

(2) characteristics, 

(3) tidal or tideless, 

(4) deltafication, 

(5) navigability, 
(«) distance, 
(Z*) time. 

I, Lakes, 

(1) outlets, 

(2) inlets, 

(8) navigability. 

7. Coast. 

a. Length. 

Z». Indentations —harbors. 

c. Kind — material, height. 

8. Rainfall. 

a'. Frequency. 



A COUNTRY 107 

h. Amount. 
c. Causes. 
9. Climate. 

a. Temperature — causes ? effects ? 
h. Moisture — causes ? effects ? 
c. Healthfuluess. 

10. Soil. 

a. Origin — glacial, alluvial, diluvial, eolian, m 

situ. 
h. Kind — sandy, gravelly, clayey, loamy, etc. 
c. Fertility. 

11. Productions. 
a. Mineral. 

h. Vegetable — cultivated, forest. 

c. Animal — domestic, wild. 

d. Manufactured. 

12. InJiaMtants. 
a. Number. 
1). Eace. 

c. Origin. 

d. Language. 

e. Characteristics, 

(1) physical, 

(2) social. 
/. Industries. 

13. Imports, 
a. Kinds. 



108 l^INTH GRADE GEOGRAPHY 

h. Amount. 
c. From whom. 

14. Exports, 
a. Kinds. 
h. Amount. 
c. To whom. 

15. Means of transportation. 
a. Land routes. 

h. Water routes. 

16. Government, 
a. Kind. 

h. Chief executive, 

(1) term of office, 

(2) salary. 
c. Eevenue. 

17. Political subdivisions. 

18. Cities. 

a. Capital. 

b. Metropolitical. 

c. Sea-port. 

d. Manufacturing. 

e. Population of. 

19. Religion, 

20. Education. 

a. Institutions, 

(1) kinds, 

(2) location. 

21. History. 



LESSON PLANS AND CRITICISMS 



Practice teachers meet weekly by grades, to discuss 
their work. The topics of discussion are, — 

a. Logical arrangement of subject matter. 
1). Illustrative material. 

c. Presentation of lesson. 

d, Eeviews. 

These plans are then written and submitted to the 
critic teacher. 

A few of them are given here as illustrations. 

Occasionally a lesson is given by one teacher, and 
criticised by the others, who write their criticisms and 
then submit them to the critic teacher for his judg- 
ment. To illustrate this feature of the work a single 
criticism by a practice teacher is added. 



(110) 



LESSON PLANS— See XXIY, 5 
Monday 

Teacher take class to cupola of Normal building 
and point to highest portions of land in view, and lead 
children to state that these are ridges of land. 

Pupils determine cardinal points from the cupola. 

After pupils have determined the cardinal points 
have them locate the direction of some one ridge, say 
the one extending south from the Fair Ground. 

Pupils observe that many ridges may be seen from the 
cupola, and that all do not extend in the same direc- 
tion, but that the greater number extend from north to 
south or nearly so. 

Pupils estimate the length of the ridge considered, 
also its height. 

Its length and height compared with other ridges 
that may be seen. 

Pupils observe that the highest portion of the ridge 
forms an irregular line which may be readily seen 
against the sky or the ridge beyond the one studied, 
and state that this line is called the crest of the ridge. 

By questioning, teacher get from pupils that the sides 
of this ridge from the crest down to its lowest portion 
are called the slopes ; that the slopes of this particular 

(111) 



112 LESSOi^ PLAINTS A.ND CRITICISMS 

ridge are gradual ; that the slopes are of unequal 
lengths ; that the shorter slope is the steeper, and the 
longer slope more gradual. 

Tuesday 

Oral reproduction of what was taught Monday. 

Pictures of ridges shown. 

Eidge making on sand-board. 

Eeview of terms ridgey crest, slopes, etc. 

Wednesday 

Pupils taken to cupola of normal building to observe 
that as the snow on the several ridges melts and forms 
water, it flows in different directions ; that snow melt- 
ing on adjacent slopes, e. g. the east side of the ridge 
studied and the west side of the ridge on which the 
asylum is situated, flows down and comes together, and 
then flows in a direction nearly parallel to the long 
crests, into the lake ; that all the land included between 
these crests, whose waters unite and flow into the lake, 
is called a basin ; and that as the snow melts on the 
ridge studied, a portion of the water flows in one direc- 
tion, and another portion in a second direction ; that 
there is a line on the highest parts of the ridge 
which corresponds to the crest, where the water parts 
and flows in opposite directions, and this line is called 
the water-parting ; that its shape is irregular like that 
of the crest. 



LESS0:N" PLAN'S AND CRITICISMS 113 

Pupils questioned as to the shape^ extent, and lowest 
portion of the basin. 

Thursday 

Oral reproduction of Wednesday^'s lesson. 

Pictures of basins shown. 

Basin making on sand-board. 

Eeview of terms luater-parting, hasm, extent of 
hasin, etc. 
Friday 

Lead pupils to observe and state that ridges vary in 
height and length ; that the highest and longest moun- 
tain chains are but the largest ridges of the world. 

Teacher present relief globe or map. 

Pupils point out what represents the ridges (moun- 
tains) on globe or map. 

Pupils point to longest ridge in South America. 

When pupil has done this, direct him to begin at the 
most southern point of this ridge and trace it north. 

Lead pupils to see and state that this ridge extends 
to Bering strait ; that it continues under the surface of 
the water to the eastern coast of Asia ; thence south 
west to the Himalayas ; from the western extremity of 
the Himalayas to Arabia ; across the Isthmus of Suez 
to Eastern Africa ; and along the eastern coast of 
Africa south to Cape of G-ood Hope. 

Pupils led to see that this ridge almost encircles the 
world, on account of which it is called the World Ridge. 



114 LESSOIiT PLANS AKD CRITICISMS 

Pupils led to observe the slopes of the World Eidge, 
their comparative lengths^ and state that the shorter 
slope is nearest the largest ocean. Observations and 
statements similar on the longer slope. 

Pupils led to observe and state where the highest 
and where the lowest points of the World Ridge are. 

Smith Muephy, 

Practice Teacher. 



CBITICISM ON OEOaRAPHI 

. LESSON 



SEE LESSON PLANS-Monday 

Report of Lesson 

The teacher first removed from the board all mat- 
ter foreign to the subject^ and placed the illus- 
trative material ready for use. 

The lesson was a reproduction of the field lesson of 
the preceding day. The teacher recalled the 
things which the children had seen^ and de- 
veloped and wrote upon the board the defini- 
tions of ridge, crest and slope. 

One statement in which the work " ridge '' was 
used in defining ^^ ridge ^"^ was accepted as a 
good definition. 

Incorrect expressions of the children were some- 
times but not always corrected. 

The teacher asked for full sentences, and accepted 
broken ones, or disconnected words. 

The teacher did not insist that the children should 
stand to recite. 

The teacher worked for words, saying, '^''Now, 
Mary, you say it.''^ 

The teacher tried to keep the children busy while 
writing upon the board, by asking for the next 
(117) 



118 CRITICISM ON- GEOGRAPHY LESSOi^ 

word, or by having them spell the words, but 
she did not write rapidly enough. 

The teacher confined her questions as a rule to a 
few, because she was not familiar with the names 
of all. Her knowledge of the names was used 
to good advantage. 

Pictures were shown, and the order was remark- 
ably good. These pictures were shown while 
one child was working upon a sand map, and 
thus the others were kept busy. 

Individual recitation of the matter was begun, but 
the summary was not finished from lack of time. 
II. Method — analytic and synthetic. 

III. Subjective Technique 

1. The room was in good condition in regard to 

temperature, ventilation, and neatness. Good. 

2. The apparatus was in good condition — all mat- 

ter foreign to the lesson being removed from 
the board. Good. 

3. The illustrative material was in order, and 

where it could easily be obtained when needed. 
Good. 

4. The children seemed ready for work, and the 

teacher's attitude was such as to make them 
wish to tell what they knew concerning the 
preceding day's work. Good. 

5. The teacher seemed at ease, and knew what she 



CRITICISM 02S^ GEOGRAPHY LESSOIST 119 

was to teach. Her position and manner 
toward the children were good. Good. 
6. The teacher did not insist that the children 
should stand to recite. Not good. 

lY. Objectiye Technique 

1. Object — To cultivate perception, memory, and 

apperception. 

2. Point — To develop ideas of, and give terms, 

ridge, crest, and slope. 

3. Plan. 

Preparation : 

The field lesson of the preceding day was 

recalled and interest awakened. Good. 
Development. 

The development was logical and to the 

point. Good. 
Incorrect expressions were not always cor- 
rected. Not good. 
Broken sentences and disconnected words 

were accepted instead of full statements. 

Not good. 
Teacher worked for words. Not good. 
Teacher did not write on board rapidly 

enough. Not good. 
Too few were questioned. Not good. 
Summary — 

Not completed. 



120 CRITICISM ON GEOGRAPHY LESSOIS' 

4. Matter. 

A line of hills is called a ridge. 

The irregular line which the top of the ridge 

forms against the sky is called the crest. 
The sides of the ridge are called slopes. 

0. The illustrative material consisted of pictures 
and the sand board. The pictures were shown, 
and helped some but not all to get a better 
idea of ridge, crest, and slope. JVot good. 

6. The recitation was individual. Good. 

7. The questioning was logical and to the point. 

Good. 
The teacher often worked for words instead 
of for thought. Wot good. 

y. statistics 

Pupils present — 14. 

Number interrogated — 9. 

Number interrogated more than once — 4. 

yi. Results in regard to 

Instruction. 

Object — work favorable to its being gained. 
Good. 

Point gained. Good. 

Language not cultivated. J^ot good. 
Intercourse. 

Relations between teacher and pupil. Good. 



CRITICISM OK GEOGRAPHY LESSOK 



121 



Relations among pupils. Good, 
Discipline and government — not necessary. 
yil. Judgment — favorable. 



Oood 
Room, 
Apparatus, 
Illustrative material, 
Children, 
Teacher, 
Preparation, 
Recitation, 
Questioning, 
Instruction, 
Intercourse. 



Not Oood 
Positions of pupils. 
Language, 
Working for words. 
Slow board work. 
Too few questioned. 
Pictures. 



Helek E. Jokes, 

Practice Teacher, 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 



ANALYTICAL INDEX 



Page 

almanac 47 

animals 43 

Asylum Hill 22, 41 

atmospheric phenomena 49 

axis 67, 68, 72, 73, 74, 77, 80, 89 

inclination of 73 

banks 29 

basins 92, 93. 101. 112. 113 

kinds 55, 58 

hays 92,99 

bridges 27 

brook 42, 49. 52 

basin 51, 54, 55, 57 

definition 57 

system 54, 57, 94 

canals 30, 60 

cardinal directions 23, 25, 26 

cardinal points 22, 47, 63, 111 

semi-cardinal points 23, 47 

cemeteries 40 

charitable institutions 29 

churches 29 

circular measure 71 

cities 102,108 



city. 



.27 



streets of 25 

description of 27 

inhabitants of 33 

map of 33 

government of 36 

surroundings of 36 

climate 51. 95. 96, 101, 102, 107 

clouds 49, 50, 96 

coast line 91, 92, 106 

comets 85 



Page 

constellation 83 

continents 90, 91, 92, 94, 99, 102 

countries 102 

country 41, 105 

county .59 

map of 59 

crest 55, 92, 94. 101, 111, 112, 117 

criticism on lesson 117-121 

deltaflcation 106 

dew .50 

'' dipper'' 23, 83, 85 

direction 21, 22 

distance .23, 25, 26, 27, 71 

drainage 94, 101, 102, 106 

earth 63, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 89 

axis 70 

circles 70, 75, 76 

circumference 69, 73 

diameter 68, 69, 77, 78 

equator 69, 70, 71, 90 

meridians 76 

motions 68 

orbit 65,72 

plane of 72 

poles 67 

revolution 64 

rotation 66, 67 

shape 63 

size 68 

tropics 75 

zones 74. 95 

eclipses 81 

lunar 81 

solar 81 

partial 81 



(125) 



126 



METHODS IN" GEOGRAPHY 



Page 
total 81 

education 102, 108 

institutions 28 

relations 44 

excursions 31, 32, 38, 41 

exports 108 

fair grounds 40, 111 

field lessons 51 

flag 35 

fort 31 

government 36, 102, 108 

hamlets 44 

harbor 39 

harvest moon 79 

hemispheres... 70. 71, 76, 90, 91, 93, 99 

highlands. ." 93, 100, 101. 105 

hill..... 41,42 

history 34, 108 

home geography 26, 27 

horizon 21 . 22, 47, 82 

definition 22 

imports 107 

inhabitants 107 

islands 37, 39, 57, 91, 99, 100 

lake 30, 38, 39, 60, 101, 106, 112 

latitude 70, 71, 100 

definition 70 

leap-year 66 

lesson plans 110-114 

lighthouses 40 

life-saving station 32 

longitude 71, 75, 76, 77, 100 

lunation 78, 79 

lowlands 94, 100 

manufactories 29 

mariner's compass 23 

measuring 28, 24, 25 

meridian 76 

meridian circle 75, 76 ,90 



Page- 

meteors 84, 85- 

milky way 83, 84, 85 

moon 22, 48, 77, 78. 79, 81 

phases 78. 79 

mountains 80, 94, 105, 113 

nationality 33 

noon shadows 48, 49 

north star 23, 63, 67, 84, 85 

occupations 34, .36, 43. 102 

oceans 91, 92. 99, 114 

currents 96 

parallels 7'5- 

parks 28 

patriotism 34, 35 

peninsulas 38, 92, 99 

people 96, 102, 107 

pier 39 

plains 41, 94, 106 

plane 72, 90 

planets 63, 66, 82, 83, 84 

names of 82 

comparative size 82 

plans 

of school-room 2-3-25 

definition of 25 

of school block 25 

definition of 25 

plants 42 

plateaus 100, 105 

poles 67,71, 76, 90 

ponds 42, 56, 57, 58 

artificial 56 

position words 19, 20, 21 

primary highlands 93, 100 

prime meridian 76 

products 43, 96, 101, 102, 107 

public buildings 28 

public roads 40 

races .* 96, 102, 107 

railroads 30, 60 

stations 30 

rainfall 50, 51, 96, 106 



ANALYTICAL IKDEX 



127 



Page 

relief 92, 96, 100, 102, 105 

religion 102, 108 

river 30. 36-38. 49, 59, 95, 101, 106 

satellite 80 

seasons 47, 72, 74, 101 

secondary highlands 93, 100 

shipping 30 

slopes 

55, 92, 93, 95, 100, 111, 112, 114, 117 

definition 57, 58 

kinds 58 

soil 42, 51, 54, 55, 96, 101, 102, 107 

springs 42, 52 

stars. 22, 48, 80, 83, 84, 85 

street railways 28 

streets 27 

sun. .22, 48, 63, 65, 72, 74, 77, 81, 82, 83 

vertical rays of 74 

swamps 41, 42 

towns 59 



Page 

tributary 54, 101 

definition 57 

twilight 48 

valley 41, 42, 100, 106 

wards 27 

water-parting.. 58, 93, 94, 101, 112, 113 

definition 58 

weather 47 

observations 31, 32, 47 

station.. 31 

bulletin 32 

. definition 51 

winds. .95, 101 

world basins 94 

world ridge 92. 93, 94, 99, 113, 114 

world river-systems 94, 95 

zones 74, 75, 95, 101 



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